This information has been obtained from the Ministry of Information, Sultanate of Oman. There are
many different opinions as to how Oman gained its name. Various sources link it
to the Qahtani tribe of Oman, others to the Arabic adjective, 'aamen', which
means 'a settled man'. The early Roman historian, Yalainous (23 - 79AD) was one
of the first to acknowledge a city named Omana, which is also mentioned in the
writings of Ptolemy. Al-Qurum
in Muscat is thought to be one of the oldest inhabited regions in the Arabian
Peninsula. Archaeological digs have found evidence of villages which have been
dated at around 6000BC, indicating the existence of communities since the Stone
Age. Other excavations have unearthed dwelling sites, tombs and kilns for firing
pottery, the remains of which date back to 3400-3000BC. Oman in the Stone Age Wattayah,
located in the governorate of Muscat, is the oldest human settlement and dates
to the Stone Age, making it around 10,000 years old. Archaeological remains from
different dates have been discovered here, the earliest representing the Stone
Age, then the Heliocene Age and finally, the Bronze Age. Findings have consisted
of stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths. The latter date back
to 7615 BC and are the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other
discoveries include hand-moulded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age
marks, heavy flint implements made from slivers of quartz, and sharp, pointed
tools and scrapers. On a
mountain rock-face in the same district, animal drawings have been discovered.
Similar drawings have also been found in the Wadi Sahtan and Wadi Bani Kharus
areas of Rustaq. These drawings consist of human figures carrying weapons and
being confronted by wild animals. Siwan in Haima is another Stone Age location
and some of the archaeological finds have included arrowheads, knives, chisels
and circular stones which have been used to throw at animals. Oman in the 4th Millennium BC Ras
al-Hamra, in the north west of Muscat, contains evidence to show that the region
had human settlements in the fourth millennium BC. The site consists of
settlements heaped one on top of the other. The layer representing the dwellings
is composed of sand, shells, fishbone, ash and coal. Interestingly, no pottery
remains have been found. Other
archaeological finds include a symmetrically shaped pit, such as might be used
for waste disposal, fire hearths, flint tools, snare weights fashioned from rock
crystal, and hunting hooks made from copper and seashells. Hunting fish and
turtles appears to have been the principal activity of these dwellers. There was
evidence that the lotus tree was widespread, as well as mangrove swamps, sorghum
and mulberry bushes. The inhabitants of this time built their homes from
branches and reeds. The dwellings were circular in shape with a central
excavation. A burial
ground was unearthed at this site which contained 220 skeletons lying on one
side in a fetal position facing the sea (the source of their subsistence), their
arms folded upwards and back. In some cases the hand was folded firmly over an
oyster. However, in one case a pearl was discovered. This pearl is one of the
oldest examples found in the Gulf. In many cases, the skeleton was adorned with
jewellery made from shells, including rings and bracelets, along with necklets
made from stone beads with shell pendants shaped like leaves. Oman in the 3rd Millennium BC There are
many locations throughout the Sultanate which represent the third millennium BC,
including Bat, Ras Al-Hadd and Samad Al-Shan. The
vestiges of six square-based stone towers, marking out and enclosing rectangular
shaped dwellings has been unearthed. It has been calculated that the height of
one of the six towers was over ten metres. Carbon dating has placed the
structures at 2750BC. Water
channels have been uncovered which were probably used to deliver water from a
more remote spot, making them some of the first examples of the aflaj irrigation
system in Oman. The Samad
Al-Shan site is located in the wilayat of Al-Mudhaibi in the eastern part of the
Sultanate. There are a number of ring-shaped graves huddled together which are
built from large stone blocks and three different types have been identified: 1.
The men's graves contained iron and copper weapons, such as daggers, knives and
arrowheads as well as large earthenware jars and shells used as drinking
vessels. 2.
The women's graves have deep stone vessels and earthenware flasks for storing
viscous liquids such as essences and shells containing a green substance used as
a cosmetic, together with a variety of shells. 3.
Dual graves, containing the skeletons of men and women together. Archaeological
studies of the artifacts from this site have established that it dates back to
around 500BC. The pottery has been hand-made from a coarse clay and fired at a
moderate temperature. It was coated inside and out and decorated with one of
three patterns: 1.
A fishbone design 2.
A grid of crossed lines 3.
Inscriptions from Southern Arabia These decorations date back to 200 - 50BC and were impressed onto
the vessels before firing. The size and function of these vessels were as
follows: 4.
Large water storage jars 5.
Cream-coloured vessels used for storing grain 6.
Earthenware flasks used for storing viscous liquids 7.
Small, dark-coloured bottles which were probably used for burial purposes only Recent
excavations have unearthed the skeleton of a she-camel which was situated close
to the rest of the burial site. It was adorned with a necklet of stone beads
which date the burial to the Iron Age. At the Ras
Al-Hadd site in Sur, an edifice has been discovered which is constructed of
brick and sub-divided into several elongated chambers. It is thought that these
were used for storage. A workshop for carving flintheads was also identified in
which were found fragments of red shert, a type of flint specifically associated
with the pre-historic period. The workshop was also used as a production unit
for making jewellery from shells, such as rings, beads and pendants. A number
of pots were found, the most important dating back to the third millennium BC.
These are of the Harappan type and probably belong to the last of the
Mohanjudaru Dynasty from India. Red terracotta earthenware was also found, with
dark stripes and illustrations. Other archaeological discoveries include pieces
of burnished pottery of the Sassanid Islamic period and also African ware and
Chinese porcelain. The
buildings are distinguished by their unique use of brick. This is the only
district in Oman and its environs, including south of Iran, Baluchistan and the
Sind Valley, where brick was used during the Bronze Age. It has been surmised
that the inhabitants of Ras al-Hadd were pioneers of using brick as a
construction material, a practice which persisted for more than 1500 years in
Oman. The most
commonly found artifacts are flint implements: chisels used for boring holes
into beads, hammers, stone snare weights and shell ornaments such as rings,
necklets and oyster shells containing antimony. A variety of beads have also
been unearthed, made from red carnelian and lapis lazuli, as well as green
porcelain vessels dating to around 1800BC. There were also large quantities of
bones from fish, turtles and sharks. Oman in the 2nd Millennium BC There are
a number of sites scattered over Oman which date back to this period. These
include the Mikhailif site and the Al Waset site in Batinah. Many smooth,
soapstone vessels have been discovered at these areas as well as ornaments
characteristic of the period, bronze spearheads, arrowheads and knives. Oman in the 1st Millennium BC The most
important site dating back to the first millennium BC is located in Sohar. A
settlement was unearthed there in which were found constructions below the
buildings of the first century AD, indicating a flourishing settlement. The
artifacts discovered show that Sohar was a significant trading centre at this
time. Merchant seals were found and a type of fine terracotta earthenware,
possibly imported from India. Other forms of pottery included Chinese porcelain
of a type found in abundance in the first century of the Islamic Age, confirming
that trade with China was flourishing then. This trade continued until the 14th
century AD. The
fortification of Sohar was raised by order of one of the princes of Hormuz with
the purpose of imposing a trade blockade on the town, until it was severely
reduced and the inhabitants were forced to flee. After the Portuguese had been
expelled from the region, Sohar saw a trade revival and an increase in its
mercantile exchanges in the Far East. Frankincense
brought the city of Dhofar in the south of the Sultanate to worldwide
prominence. Dhofar was the prime source of this exotic commodity and also of
gum. Frankincense was in the forefront of commodities traded in the past,
particularly once it had caught the attention of the early historians around 400
BC, such as Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy, Strabo and Diodorus. Field
studies carried out in Dhofar indicate that frankincense was transported by land
and sea across the world. The crop was collected for outward transport from Ras
Fartak port (Jebel Al Qamr) to Yemen and the rest of Asia, via Aden port. The
land route started to the west of Dhofar and passed through the Nejd to the
south of the Arabian peninsula, then swinging north to Najran and on to Gaza.
However, the most significant route was that which linked Dhofar with the east
of the Arabian peninsula and continued to Sumer, in Iraq. Ptolemy I
was the first geographer to draft a map of the Dhofar district in which he
identified the Salalah Plain (Khwar Rawri) as the region where frankincense was
cultivated. He also highlighted an area which he named Suq al Omaniyeen (the
Omani Marketplace). Other studies show that the Omanis controlled the principal
districts on the south coast of the Arabian Sea. Muslim historians made
reference to Ubar or Wabar, placing it in the northern part of Dhofar. Nashwan
bin Said Al-Homeiri also referred to this place, but believed it to be in the
territory occupied by the Aad tribe (the eastern part of Yemen). The historian
Al-Tabai speaks of Ubar without specifying its whereabouts in a reference to its
having been stricken with drought. At all events, there are many references
indicating that the Aad clan was settled at Ubar. The Quran also records a tale
of the Aad who were destroyed and buried without their domicile being known.
Thus it can be concluded that Ubar was not the name of a city, but of a
substantial territory, the precise location of which is a matter of debate
between historians and archaeologists. From the
earliest times, Dhofar was a habitat uniquely suited to the cultivation of the
frankincense bush, although it appears that the use of frankincense as a traded
commodity did not occur before the Neolithic Period, some 8000 years previous.
During the Islamic Era, frankincense trade traversed the routes of the Neolithic
Period which were constructed by the Arabs and Romans. The frankincense route
from Oman to Egypt traveled by way of the Negev and Sinai. Thus, trade may have
occurred between the Arabian peninsula and Dhofar during the Neolithic Period. Certainly,
South Arabia was once endowed with many rivers and lakes and consequently,
traversed by many roads, in particular across the Rub al-Khali. The evidence for
this comes from vessels and implements associated with the Neolithic Period
which were found along the length of the route and at various sites throughout
the Arabian peninsula. Further evidence came in the form of paintings on rock
faces in the west of the peninsula and in Yemen. Finds along the route to Sumer
in Iraq were all characterised by the same feats of decoration. Oman did
not confine its exports to raw frankincense, or olibanum. By blending this with
a form of tallow, it was possible to process it into incense for religious
rites. Ivory and perfumes were also among Oman's exports during the Neolithic
Period. Investigative surveys stumbled on a quantity of Sumerian tablets bearing
the name bokhur (incense) and records have described bokhur as
"extracted from the frankincense bush". In
conclusion, from approximately 5000 BC to around 1800 BC, Iraq's need for
incense, as supplied by Dhofar, grew. Some time around 2000 BC the region
probably witnessed a change of climate and the environment began to experience
drought and gradual desertification. This happened around the time inhabitants
began to domesticate the camel for use in the overland caravan route.
Archaeological findings in the peninsula and in Egypt prove that the land trade
became an established reality circa 1500 BC. At all
events, the locality known as Shasir was the Nejd/Dhofar district's principal
trade centre for the northern land route which began at the start of the
Neolithic Period and which appears to have been associated with trade between
Dhofar and the north of the Arabian peninsula to Sumer in the south of Iraq. It
is possible that the trade links between Dhofar and Sumer extended from the
earliest times to trade with Gaza and Ancient Egypt. Shasir
continued to thrive after the end of the Bronze and Iron ages. Recent
excavations have unearthed traces of fine buildings, suggesting a well-populated
place on the trading activities of its citizens. During the Middle Ages, many
sources refer to their uncommon enterprise in the export of incense, horses and
gum. It is likely that Shasir retained its trading prominence up to the start of
the 16th century, when its inhabitants left and relocated in the
surrounding regions. Field
surveys carried out in 1993 on the Salalah Plain discovered a similarity in the
buildings excavated, particularly at the Ain Hamran site, with those of the
Shasir district, sharing many identical architectural features. A large group of
buildings at Balid in Salalah were also found. These studies ascribe
considerable significance to this locality as a busy trading post engaged in the
export and import of goods, as evidenced by the presence of a variety of coins
and ceramic vessels, dating to the 14th century AD. Archaeologists
also found parallel samples in Shasir, establishing that a link existed between
the region to the interior of Dhofar and the coast right up to the 15th
century. From this
brief outline, it can be seen that Oman was home to a civilisation which went
back in time continuously to the pre-Islamic Age. Throughout the Islamic age
itself, Oman enjoyed a cultural expansion on a par with the other Islamic lands,
with which it communicated through trade and navigation. Oman
from the Dawn of Islam It is said
that a massive human migration occurred during the earliest part of recorded
history, from the north of the Arabian peninsula, south to Oman and its coastal
periphery due to the drought affecting the interior of Arabia. The exact date of
the migration has not been established, nor whether it took place as a single
migration or a series. The migrants came from the Nazarene tribe, Adnani Arabs
from the north. Arab sources relate how Oman was the focus of an intense influx
from Yemen when, in the time of Sharhabil Yaafar al-Himyari in the mid 5th
century AD, the Ma'rib Dam was breached and destroyed. As a result of an
inability to repair the dam, the Lakhm and the Azd inhabitants fled the city to
various parts of the peninsula. Some of the Azd travelled into the eastern part
of Oman, while the Awas and the Khazrah settled in Yathrib. The Bani Amru bin
Amer, who were descended from Mazin bin Al-Azd, headed north towards the hills
of El-Sham. Al-Bilathuri describes how the Azd, after they had left their home
country, went first to Mecca and there they separated to travel to Oman,
As'Sirah, Al-Anbar and Al Hirah, and El-Sham. It is said
that Malik was the first of the Azd to enter Oman. Malik crossed into Oman with
an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses. Upon finding the Persians
there, he retired to Qalhat and then engaged in a protracted and fierce battle
with them. The Persians sought to terrorize the Arabs by bringing a number of
their elephants to the front of their battle lines. But Malik's company were not
intimidated and fell upon the animals with weapons, until the beasts fell and
crushed many of the Persian troops. Despite
the Persians' spirited resistance, the Azdi tribesmen were victorious and the
Persians were forced to sue for peace. Under this arrangement, Malik was to
maintain peace for one year, while the Persians moved out of Oman. However, the
Persian King, enraged by the defeat, reneged on his promise to move out and sent
down reinforcements via Bahrain. Malik, despite an inferior force, attacked the
3000-strong army and routed them. Thus, Malik bin Fahm attained control of Oman
and seized all the wealth and possessions of the Persians. This
showdown with the Persians made the Omani Arabs fiercely protective of their
independence, Arab identity and lineage. They descended on Persia itself and
succeeded in wresting control of Karman, which remained in Omani hands until the
death of Selima bin Malik. The Persians inflicted defeat on the Omanis and
regained possession of Karman. Thus, a portion of the Omani Arabs returned to
Oman. For a
period before the Julanda came to power, the Azd tribe had been pouring steadily
into Oman. Among the first to settle was Omar bin Amru bin Amer and his sons,
Al-Hajar and Al-Aswad. From these two are descended many of the Omani tribes. The Bani
Al-Aswad took part in the Muslim Conquests after the emergence of Islam and a
branch of them was to travel as far as Andalucia when they went down to Bajana
seaport and partook in a jihad by sea. Of the Bani Maawiya bin Shams Al-Azdi
were Gaifar and Abd, sone of Al-Julanda bin Karkar bin Al-Mustakbir bin Mas'ud
bin Al-Jarar Abdul Azi bin Ma'wila bin Shams, King of Oman at the time of the
Prophet. Ibn Hazm recounts how the Prophet sent them a dispatch inviting them to
adopt Islam. This they did with full and complete conviction and along with them
the people of Oman. This was in the eighth year of the Hegira, soon after Amr
bin Al-A'as had adopted the faith. It is
reported that Amr bin Al A'as recounted his journey and events in Oman as
follows: "I
travelled to Oman and visited Abd who was better than his brother and behaved
himself. I told him that I am the messenger of Allah's Messenger to you and your
brother. He replied, 'My brother is older than me and his rank is higher than my
own. I will introduce my brother to you and he will read your letter.' Then he
asked me, 'What are you going to say to him?' I replied that I would ask him to
submit to Allah alone and nothing other than Allah and to believe that Mohammed
is his servand and messenger. He said, 'O Amr, you are the son of your people's
Master…How did your father Al A'as bin Waa'el, whom we respect very much,
decide?' I said that he died and did not believe in Mohammed. I wished that he
was the Messenger's follower. I was like him before, until Allah - may He be
exalted - led me to the right way and I converted to Islam. He asked me, 'When
did you follow Mohammed?' I said recently and he then asked, 'Where did you
convert?'. I told him that I converted before Al-Najashi and I told him that Al-Najashi
had already converted to Islam. He asked, 'What was the attitude of your
people?' I told him that they approved and that they had followed suit. He then
asked, 'What about the Christian priests and bishops?' I replied that they also
had converted. He replied to me in disbelief saying, 'Look Amr, what you say is
not more than a lie.' I said that I told the truth and that lies were prohibited
in our religion. He then said, 'Did Hercules know about Al-Najashi's submission
to Islam?' I told him that he did. He asked, 'What was the outcome?' I told him
that Al-Najashi used to pay tax to Hercules, but when Al-Najashi placed his
faith in Mohammed (peace be upon Him) and submitted to Islam, he decided and
swore by Allah that he would never pay Hercules, even if Hercules asked him to
pay a single drachma. Hercules was told about what Al-Najashi had said and
Hercules' brother asked him, 'How come your slave has decided not to pay you tax
and to believe in a new religion?' and Hercules replied, 'What can I do for a
man who chooses his religion? In the name of God, if I was not the country's
leader, I would do what he did.' He then
said to me, 'Think Amr, about what you are saying.' I replied, in the name of
Allan I have told you the truth. Then Abd asked me, 'What is his advice and from
what does he want the people to desist?' I said, He wants everyone to be
obedient to Allah - may He be exalted. He forbids disobedience and has ordered
us to do everything that is good and to be good to relatives. He forbids
oppression and injustice. He also forbids adultery, alcoholic drinks and the
worshipping of stones, as well as the prohibition of praying to idols and the
cross. Abd replied, 'What a great thing he is leading the people to. If my
brother agrees with me, we will travel to, and will believe in, Mohammed. But my
brother is selfish with his property and would not wish to become a follower.' I
said, if he submitted to Islam, then Allah's Messenger will assign him to be the
leader of his people and will take the alms from the rich and give it to the
poor. He said, 'It is really a wonderful story, but what are the alms?' I told
him that Allah's Messenger had imposed a certain amount of tax on the wealthy
people. When I mentioned the cattle, he asked me, 'Do you mean that some of the
pasturing cattle will be taken?' I replied that they would. He said, 'My God, I
don't think that all my people will accept such a rule.'" Amr bin
Al-A'as remained at this city and continued his narrative, thus: "My
mission was conveyed to Abd's brother who in turn invited me to visit him where
he lived. His soldiers took my arm and he told them to enter. When I went in,
they refused to allow me to sit. I looked into his eyes and he asked me, 'Tell
me what you want?' I gave him the closed letter. He took it and finished reading
the letter and passed it over to his brother to read it. Then he said, 'Would
you tell me what Qureish did?' I said, they trusted and followed Him, whether
through sincere belief in the religion or whether forced by the sword to accept
it. He then asked, 'Who supports him?' I replied that the people who accepted
and chose Islam as their religion understood Islam with the help of Allah. They
were in darkness and that I did not know anyone left in the area who did not
believe in Islam, except him. If he did not submit to Islam and follow it, the
horses would crush him and destroy his followers, If he submitted to Islam, then
he would be assigned the leader of his people and the horses and the soldiers
would not enter his place. He replied, 'Give me one day to think and come back
tomorrow.' On the
next day, I returned to him, but he did not allow me to enter his room. I went
to his brother and told him that they did not allow me to see him. He came with
me and entered the room, and Gaifar said to me, 'I have reflected upon what you
demanded but I should be the greatest weakling of all the Arabs if I were to
give another man rule over all that I possess.' I told him that I was leaving
tomorrow. When he was certain that I was really leaving, he went to have a
private talk with his brother. On the next morning, he called me and dedicated
himself to Islam, together with his brother and his people. They paid their alms
and ruled their people. They helped me and stood side by side with me against
any opposition. Both submitted to Islam and many people followed them too." Another
branch of the Omani Azd came from Al-Hodan bin Shams, brother of Ma'wila bin
Shams. A delegation of these approached the Prophet after Mecca had fallen to
the Muslims under Maslia bin Mazin Al-Hadani. Another detachment of them then
migrated to Basra and others stayed in Oman Emergence Historians
cannot give specific dates as to when Islam emerged in Oman, but documents
indicate that the Prophet Mohammed (Peace Be Upon Him) contacted Oman's leaders
in 6th Hegira (AH - from the Islamic calendar). The first Omani
called to the Islamic faith was Mazin bin Ghaduba Al-Tay who declared that he
had destroyed the idols and '..come before the Messenger and converted to
Islam.' Following his revelation, Mazin travelled to the Prophet Mohammed (PBUH)
and dedicated himself to the faith of Islam, to obeying its laws and to
spreading the word of Islam to the unbelievers. The Arab Islamic Conquest
continued from the time of the Prophet's death in 11th century AH for
around 100 years. With Oman's strong merchant trading links, it was instrumental
in spreading the word to other countries such as Persia. In 1718AD,
the Imam, Sultan bin Saif II died and civil war broke out over the election of
his successor. This war raged for the next 18 years and two factions emerged:
one supporting the leadership of Saif bin Sultan, who was, at the time, a young
boy; and the other supporting Muhanna bin Sultan who held the necessary
qualities to be an Imam. Muhanna was smuggled into Rustaq Fort where he was thus
established as Imam in 1719AD. He was not a popular leader, despite his hard
work, and only one year later, Ya'arub bin Bal'arab forced him to concede his
leadership and killed him. Ya'arub installed the young Saif bin Sultan as Imam
and declared his own role as Saif's custodian. However, he abused his role and
Bal'arab bin Nasir took over the welfare of Saif in 1723AD. In 1738
AD, a huge battle took place between Persian troops and the Arabian forces in
Bahla. The Arabian forces were defeated and Imam Saif escaped to Buraimi where
he declared his intention to fight and overthrow the Persians. However, unrest
among the people, who now favoured Sultan bin Murshid as new Imam, gave the
Persians the opportunity to capture Muscat. On the Persians' attempts to take
over Sohar, Ahmad bin Said, the deputy of the town, overthrew them and drove
them from Oman. The
Al Bu Said Dynasty Ahmad bin
Said was subsequently elected Imam in 1744 and was a popular and well-respected
leader. Despite having to reconcile the warring factions after the civil war,
Ahmad bin Said developed and built up the Oman navy into a fierce task force,
which assisted in the expulsion of the Persians from Basra. He died in 1783.
Ahmad bin Said's son, Said, was elected Imam but he was an unpopular choice and
was replaced by his son, Hamad. With Hamad's sudden death in 1792, Sayyid Sultan
bin Ahmed assumed power until 1804 when, upon his demise, his son, Sayyid Said
bin Sultan acceded to the throne. Sayyid Said nurtured his country's economy and
commercial activities. He made Zanzibar Oman's second capital and established
diplomatic relations with Europe and the United States. Oman thus prospered and
held colonies in East Africa and across the Gulf. During the
First World War, Oman's economy and trade links declined and the country was
left in relative isolation until 1970, when His Majesty, Sultan Qaboos bin Said
took to the throne. |